In a white paper published by a multidisciplinary team of top scientists in China, Earth system is defined to encompass both internal and external geospheres from solid Earth system through surface ...

Earth System Sciences is an inherently interdisciplinary field that investigates the integrated dynamics of the planet’s major spheres—the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere—and their ...

Plate subduction traverses multiple Earth spheres, transporting surface and lithospheric materials to the deep interior and reaching the core-mantle boundary (CMB). Conversely, mantle plumes convey ...